1. Socrates Socrates believed that knowledge was not imparted by him to his students. All he did was to awaken and unearth the true knowledge in the students\’ hearts. Just like a midwife, what she does is to help give birth to children (knowledge), and children (knowledge) are owned by everyone. Therefore, he called his teaching method \”midwifery\” and compared himself to the midwife of knowledge. Perhaps purely by coincidence, Socrates\’ mother happened to be a midwife. Socrates can be regarded as a son who inherited his mother\’s business, and the mother and son enjoyed the work of midwifery together. Socrates often starts from specific things and phenomena that the other party is familiar with, and reveals the contradictions of the other party through asking questions, and proceeds in this way until he finally reaches a conclusion that both parties agree with. Not to mention whether Socrates\’ epistemology is correct or not, the \”Midwife Technique\” he created is indeed unique in teaching people to seek knowledge and truth. It pioneered the \”heuristic conversation method\” in the West and has been used for thousands of years. People can excel. 2. Aristotle Aristotle believed that education before the age of 7 should focus on physical education, and children should be guided in a timely manner to do various activities suitable for physical development. It is very necessary for children to develop cold-resistant habits from an early age; getting used to the cold will not only promote their physical fitness, but also prepare them to join the army when they grow up. As for children\’s crying, there is no need to prohibit it. Crying expands the lungs and helps the body\’s development. Children should not be taught any homework before the age of 5, so as not to hinder their normal physical development. The main activities for children before the age of 5 are games and listening to stories. \”Children\’s games should neither be mean nor tiring, nor should they contain a soft sentiment.\” Stories should be carefully chosen by officials responsible for educating children. The game and the story it tells should preferably be connected to a future job and be a simple imitation of the job that will be done in the future. Children\’s environment is crucial to the formation of their character. Children should not be allowed to listen to obscene language, let alone speak obscene language. Once they utter obscene words carelessly, they will not be far away from evil deeds. Likewise, do not allow them to see lewd pictures or theatrical performances. People often leave a deep impression on the things they first come into contact with. “Therefore, when people are young, they must isolate themselves from any obscene things. All kinds of performances that can lead to evil thoughts and vicious emotions should be carefully guarded against and do not make the ears \”Rumu Ran.\” From the age of 5 to 7, children can watch people doing the work they will do in the future. The Chinese Studies Enlightenment Series for Primary School Students: Classical Classics Enlightenment + Basics + Improvement, all 3 volumes in ultra-clear pdf. According to Aristotle\’s schooling system, children should be taught by \”physical education teachers and competitive teachers\” from the age of 7. The mission of physical education is to help improve health and \”strengthen fighting power.\” For sport to be effective, a suitable approach should be adopted. At that time, some Greek city-states trained children and teenagers in the same way as athletes. Aristotle believed that this was a wrong policy, because excessive exercise in children would have negative consequences, and children\’s physique would be damaged after long-term strenuous exercise. Some people who participated in competitions as children and achieved excellent results can still win prizes in competitions as adults. At most, only twoJust three examples. Therefore, before the age of 17, children\’s sports regulations can only be some \”light gymnastics\”. At the same time, physical education teachers should train children\’s bodies to develop normal habits. Athletic teachers can only teach children light martial arts, such as bows, arrows, projectiles, etc., so that they can initially receive training in military techniques. Aristotle disapproved of the Spartan approach to harsh training of children and adolescents. The Spartans used barbaric measures to train children to be brave. In fact, this method is wrong, because bravery is different from ferocity. \”The most ferocious ones are often not necessarily the truly brave ones.\” For example, among beasts, the truly brave ones, such as male lions, tend to have a gentler temperament. Those gangsters who specialize in plunder and those cannibals have no real courage or virtue. Only those who can face danger squarely, are not afraid of danger, and are unyielding are the truly brave people. 3. Isocrates Isocrates (436 BC to 338 BC) was an ancient Greek rhetorician. He was born into a wealthy slave-owning family in Athens. He was a student of the Sophists Gorgis and Protagoras. He sometimes studied with Socrates and made a career out of writing speeches for court proceedings. In 392 BC, he founded the first rhetoric school near the Luc Department in Athens. It was one of the most famous schools in ancient times, with students from all parts of the Greek world. Under his instruction, many students became politicians and philosophers, so he was called the most successful professional teacher in ancient times. Isocrates believed that eloquence was the product of virtue and wisdom. He himself is not just a rhetorician with simple skills. He demands that rhetoric and speech be raised to the level of true art, and believes that gorgeous rhetoric can only serve as a foil for personal virtue and national justice. To train orators, he proposed a broad curriculum, with special emphasis on the importance of language and literature in higher schools, and he helped philosophers make Athens a great literary center. There are many extant works by Isocrates, mainly political speeches and court debates. 4. Cicero Cicero (106 BC-43 BC) was an important historical figure in ancient Rome. He was not only an outstanding prose writer, but also a political activist of extraordinary ability. He made important contributions to education in ancient Rome. He is an active advocate of eloquence education, and his book \”Eloquence\” is one of the most important works on eloquence education in ancient times. Cicero\’s family belonged to the upper class, was wealthy, and received a good education since childhood. He was educated in schools run by famous rhetoricians, jurists and Stoic philosophers. In his youth, according to traditional customs, he received military training and served in the army. Finally, according to the educational traditions of the time, he went to the philosophy school in Athens for two years to study. After completing his education, he worked as a lawyer, and soon entered politics. With his extensive knowledge, eloquent genius, and political skills and intrigues, he rose through the ranks. In 64 BC, during the election campaign, , defeated the famous democratic leader Katikona, and was elected consul, ascending to the leadership position of national power. existIn the political struggle, he went against the trend of history and clung to the republic. When the republic came to the end of history, Cicero himself became its victim. When the Roman Triumvirate purged the Senate who opposed the dictatorship, Cicero attempted to escape and was killed. Oratory originated in Greece. During the Roman Republic, eloquence played a huge role in political life. It was an important tool to win over the people and defeat political opponents. By the end of the Republic, its importance gradually disappeared. With the establishment of the monarchy, oratory gradually lost the soil for its existence. But in another sense, he continued to serve the empire and became a symbol or synonym for educated Romans. Cicero lived during this period. Cicero\’s theory of orator education not only complies with the requirements of the times and is not only derived from real life, but also enriches the content of orator education and makes it more theoretically significant. His thoughts on cultivating orator education can be summarized in the following points. Cicero believed that practice should occupy an important position in the method of cultivating orators, and practice is an indispensable part of cultivating orators. He emphasized that practice is the most important way to transform various knowledge about eloquence into speech effects. Cicero pointed out that there are many ways to practice, and the most commonly used practice method is simulated speech. This method means to first determine a topic similar to that of a speech on the podium, then make full and thoughtful preparations for the topic, and finally deliver the speech. According to Cicero, among the various exercises, the chief one is writing. Writing can exercise people\’s thinking and expression skills. This ability can be transferred to the ability to speak. The speech must have a reasonable structure, a well-proportioned layout, appropriateness, and rhythm. These can only be obtained through the practice of speech writing. Writing practice must be sustained, and you cannot fish for three days and dry the net for two days, otherwise it is impossible to obtain obvious results. This is an experience Cicero himself gained from decades of personal practice. 5. Quintilian Quintilian (35-95 AD) was born in northern Spain. He was first educated in Rome and then returned to Spain to work as a teacher. In 68 AD, he was called to Rome and was awarded the first rhetorical title in the Roman Empire by the Roman emperor. professorship. In 90 AD, Quintilian became a tutor for two noble children of the Roman royal family. His works include \”Principles of Speech\”, written around AD 96, later lost, and rediscovered in 1416. Quintilian\’s book \”Principles of Speech\” not only reflects the reality of Roman school education in the two hundred years BC, but also systematically expounds the educational thoughts on cultivating orators. Like Cicero, he believed that an ideal orator must first be a good person, and that a moral life is much more important than gorgeous rhetoric. He has great confidence in education and believes that educators should see that children have unlimited potential abilities and development possibilities. Although natural talents are important in learning, they cannot complain that only a few people have the ability. When receiving education, most people are dull; on the contrary, most people are quick to understand and willing to learn, and those stupid people are as rare as abnormal things. He exhaustedHe strongly advocated and demonstrated in many ways the view that public education is superior to private education. He required that future orators must live in the most open and sunny public life, and be good at interacting with society, so that they can often be stimulated and inspired by new things. In terms of learning, he believes that as a speaker, he must have a broad and solid knowledge base. He particularly emphasized the importance of literary teaching (including the study of the works of historians, scientists, and poets), saying: \”Unless the foundation is well and truly laid, the superstructure will collapse.\” Quintilian saw And raised the important role of teachers in the teaching process that has been ignored in the past. He conducted research on children\’s psychological characteristics and teaching methods, and believed that teachers must treat children with a parent-like attitude and thoroughly understand the differences and tendencies of children\’s abilities; punishment, whipping, and even ridicule can only make children young. The mind is traumatized; teachers\’ encouragement and example are effective ways to make students learn successfully. The book \”Principles of Speech\” is the first systematic teaching methodology in the ancient West. 6. Vives Vives (1492-1540) was a Spanish humanist and educator during the European Renaissance. He was born in a noble family in Valencia, received family education at an early age, and entered the University of Valencia in 1508. He entered the University of Paris in 1509. In 1512, because he was dissatisfied with the scholastic education at that time, he left Paris and went to Flanders, where he studied and lectured at the University of Louvain and established a close friendship with Erasmus. In 1523, he was invited to England and served as Princess Mary\’s tutor. He also served as professor of Greek and Latin at Oxford University, and worked closely with More. In the divorce case of King Henry VIII of England, he sided with Queen Catherine, and later left England and died in Bruges. Vives, Erasmus and Boudie of France are known as the three heroes of European humanism. He was a central figure in the struggle against scholasticism. He extensively adopted inductive scientific methods and paid attention to observation and experiment, two centuries earlier than Bacon. He was engaged in educational practice and paid attention to educational research. German education historian Lange called him a pioneer of a new path in education and the Quintilian of modern Europe. His important educational works include \”Introduction to Wisdom\” (1524) and \”The Transmission of Knowledge\” (1531). \”Introduction to Wisdom\” is a collection of moral maxims with a total of 592 items, including wisdom, the three realms of human beings, the nature and value of things, body, spirit, learning, virtue and emotions, and religion. Jesus Christ, food consumption, sleep, charity, how to live with others. There are 17 parts including speech and communication, vows and how to treat others. This book has been a textbook in British schools for more than a hundred years since the second half of the 16th century and has become an integral part of British educational theory. \”The Transmission of Knowledge\” is a self-contained Christian pedagogy. It is divided into five volumes: The Origin of Education, Schools, Language Teaching, Advanced Courses and Learning and Life. He believes that education and life are integrated, and that in a person\’s life, the pursuit of wisdom has no end. Knowledge and virtue are the purposes of education, and all learning is for the public\’s happiness. Loving God is the highest purpose of life,So the purpose of education and the purpose of religion are the same. In Vives\’s view, More\’s \”Utopian\” family was the resurrection of Plato\’s Academy, so he named the school Academy, He Primary School. High schools and universities are integrated into one. He attached great importance to the choice of school site, requiring fresh air, convenient supply, and being far away from urban areas and traffic arteries. Volumes three and four are the curriculum theory part. He believes that the basis of the curriculum is language teaching. The main content of language teaching is the study of Latin. Students are required to be able to speak Latin errors, read Latin monographs, and also learn Greek. Vives also attaches great importance to the teaching of native languages and requires students to master both native languages and Latin. He believes that the study of nature is an important subject. All departments of knowledge come from nature. Feeling is the road to knowledge, so sense training should be carried out through observation and experiment. He proposed that sports should play an important role in the curriculum. He attached great importance to the training of teachers and advocated that teachers should go through probation and be carefully inspected by the principal before being awarded the title of teacher. These educational views of Vives had a great influence on Bacon and Comenius. 7. Montaigne Montaigne (1533-1592) was a French humanist and famous essayist during the European Renaissance. He entered Seine Middle School at the age of 6 and received a very strict classical education. He studied law from the age of 13. He later traveled to many places in Europe and served as the mayor of Bordeaux. His main works include three volumes of \”Essays\”, among which articles discussing education, schools and teachers include \”On Academic Spirit\” and \”On Children\’s Education\”. Montaigne ridiculed and criticized the narrow humanistic education popular at that time, and he accused the pedantic humanists of being hollow. Filling children\’s memories with things from rigid books, this kind of education only cultivates pedantic scholars, rather than educated gentlemen who are developed in all aspects. Montaigne was concerned with the education of aristocratic children. He believed that a proper education should be under the guidance of carefully selected tutors. He hoped that mentors should cultivate children\’s feelings and make them become subjects and gentlemen who are most loyal to the king. He believed that aristocratic children were destined to become rulers, and therefore children should be taught graceful manners, noble manners, etiquette, music and dance from an early age, and should be subjected to the rigors of physical exercise. Regarding the cumbersome teaching methods of extreme formalism, Montaigne put forward many opinions worthy of attention. He hopes that teachers will change their teaching methods like funneling things through a funnel and instead teach according to children\’s abilities. In teaching, it should not be just the teacher who speaks, but students should also be allowed the opportunity to speak. Teachers should let students speak out what they have learned and understand its meaning and essence. He also hopes that teachers will allow students to absorb everything carefully, and not believe in things that are established only by authority or without investigation. He believes that a person who just follows others will not explore anything, and therefore will not find anything. He said that learning and education serve only one purpose, which is to \”cultivate children\’s perfect judgment.\” He concluded that \”the best way is to cultivate an interest and love for learning, otherwise we will just educate some books full of books.\”\”Fool\”. These educational views of Montaigne had a great influence on later Locke and Rousseau. 8. Luther Luther also made a huge contribution to education. He wrote \”A Letter to Mayors and Local Council Senators All Over Germany\” \”Letter\” and \”The Responsibility of Sending Children to Education\” embodies his educational views. Luther made serious criticisms of the education at that time. From universities to elementary schools, there have never been serious problems. Many schools have degenerated into Places of sin have become \”hells and purifications\”, where children are whipped and tortured all day long. Teachers and monks in universities and monastery schools are unlearned people who only care about People who fill their stomachs are simply not qualified to teach and manage schools. Students taught by these people cannot expect to get anything except becoming more blind and stupid! Luther even put universities and monasteries Teachers, priests, and monks in schools are compared to \”coarse, fat donkeys\” and \”pigs wearing pearls.\” The decline of schools at all levels is also reflected in the fact that there are no good libraries and no good books. All they have is some Books full of fallacies, those poisonous and unclean books, filled every corner of the monastery. Since there were no books to read, Luther asked, how could students and teachers show any difference from the books they read? \”The Crow \”You can\’t hatch pigeons, and you can\’t breed smart people from fools.\” Teachers teach useless things, and they know nothing about teaching methods. Therefore, teenagers stay in school for 20 years or even longer. Time, in the end, neither Latin nor German can be learned. Therefore, Luther believed that universities and monasteries could not get anything else except turning people into \”donkeys and fools\”. In addition, these places have The existence of \”shameful and sinful\” things has caused young people to suffer \”painful destruction\” in them. In this case, it is better for young people not to enter these schools and let them remain ignorant than to be physically and mentally destroyed. There are many. Therefore, the way out is to either \”destroy\” these corrupt and destructive schools, or transform them into \”Christian schools.\” Luther believes that education includes two responsibilities. One is to cultivate the professional skills needed by both the monks and the secular world. Talents, one is to provide general education to the people. He believed that the most important talents needed by the monks and laymen were theologians, jurists and medical scientists. This was proposed based on the social needs of the time. First of all, Luther was very The reason for attaching great importance to the training of jurists is that the German political power is based on \”the laws of the Roman Empire.\” In order to consolidate national power, the law must be maintained, and to maintain the law one must have knowledge and wisdom. In secular political power, It is those knowledgeable jurists and other scholars who maintain the law and use it to maintain the normal operation of the secular government. Another responsibility of education is to improve the culture and morality of the people. For the happiness of the country and the people, those in power We should not be stingy with money, but should be willing to spend money on education. Therefore, in a letter to the mayor and council members, Luther called on them to take up the responsibility of youth education. The happiness and glory of the city are all in their hands, and they ResponsibleLet\’s manage the city well. They should work to this end day and night with all their heart and soul. If you think that whether people\’s lives are happy or not has nothing to do with you, then this kind of person is not worthy of ruling the people. He is only qualified to rule pigs and dogs. Those princes and ministers only knew how to eat, drink and have fun, and patrolled the wine cellar and kitchen all day long. Therefore, the responsibility for running a good education naturally falls on the mayor and city councilors. Based on the above reasons, since both the monastic and lay circles need education, then the leaders of both monastic and lay circles should also take on the responsibility of providing education. The church should provide education, and the secular government agencies should also provide education. Luther\’s ideas had a great influence on European countries after the Reformation. Since then, it has gradually become a centuries-old tradition in Europe for the church and state institutions to run education at the same time. This tradition continues to this day, but secular government institutions gradually take a dominant position in running schools, and the church is increasingly dominated by the state. That’s all. 9. Comenius Jan Arms Comenius (1592-1670) was a Czech educator in the 17th century. He devoted his life to national independence, the elimination of religious oppression, and educational reform. He served as a Czech Brotherhood priest and the principal of a Brotherhood School. The era in which Comenius lived coincided with the transition period of Western Europe from the Middle Ages to modern society. In the fields of culture and thought, there has been a fierce collision between human rights and divine rights, reason and faith, reality and the afterlife, science and superstition, democracy and autocracy. Comenius had strong ideas of democracy, patriotism, humanism and materialism. He shoulders the heavy historical responsibility and strives to break the floodgates of old traditions and allow new educational thoughts that adapt to the new era to surge forward. However, he could not completely get rid of the shackles of religious theology, and often expressed his educational views in the form of new wine in old bottles. There are 265 kinds of various works by Comenius. \”The Theory of Great Teaching\” is the first systematic and complete pedagogy work in the history of Western education. It comprehensively discusses the value of human beings, the purpose and role of education, the shortcomings of the old education, the necessity and possibility of reforming education, the school system, and teaching Law, physical education, moral education, religious education. School management, etc. Here are selected chapters on teaching methods from the book. \”Maternal Education School\” is the first monograph on preschool education in history. It discusses in detail the importance of preschool education, prenatal education and the content of preschool education. Although this book discusses preschool education issues under family conditions, it later provided important inspiration to Froebel, the founder of kindergarten, and formed the central idea of his preschool education theory. \”The School of Pansophia\” is an implementation plan drawn up by Comenius for the experimental school he established in Hungary, guided by Pansophism. Comenius\’ pansophism is a theory that seeks to teach all useful practical knowledge to all people. This theory adapts to the trend of the times of promoting rationality and respecting knowledge, and expresses the importance of universal education. The democratic spirit of popularizing knowledge. This plan was partially implemented, and many of its ideas and measures became important components of modern educational theory. 10. William Petty In his book \”Political Arithmetic\” published in 1676, British bourgeois economist William Petty first tried to use numerical data to calculate the monetary value of the results of education in a broad sense.and draw conclusions for formulating economic policy from its results. Petty regarded \”skill\” as a special fourth factor of production besides land, material capital and labor. Petty believed that education and training make differences in people\’s labor productivity. He compared seamen and farmers and believed that due to the training that seamen received, in terms of monetary value ratio, \”one seaman is actually equal to three farmers.\” Petty also calculated the monetary value of Britain\’s \”living capital\” based on the assumption that human labor brings interest to the monetary value of human power. It was the first attempt to determine the amount of \”human capital\” in a country. 11. Locke (1632-1705) was a famous British educational thinker and philosopher in the 17th century. His major works include: \”Treatise on Government\”, \”On Human Understanding\”, \”Education Essays\”, and \”Working School Plan for Poor Children\”. The selected content of this book reflects Locke\’s views on the role of education, the source of knowledge, moral, intellectual, and physical education. Locke\’s main educational thought is gentleman education. He believed that the purpose of education was to cultivate gentlemen, that is, moral, knowledgeable, and polite people. To this end, Locke proposed a set of educational contents and implementation methods including moral, intellectual, and physical education. He believes that sports are the foundation of all education. A gentleman must first have a strong body and be able to endure hardships; moral education is the first priority; intellectual education is an important component and can assist more important qualities, but its purpose is not to impart knowledge. , but to cultivate students\’ learning attitude and learning ability. Locke also proposed teaching subjects and specific teaching methods that included a large amount of practical knowledge. Locke\’s educational thoughts had a great influence on modern Western education, especially French education in the 18th century. His theory of gentleman education was a great progress compared with feudal and religious education, and was in line with the interests of the British bourgeoisie at that time. However, Locke\’s ideas were compromising. His historical materialism was incomplete and he still believed in God; he discriminated against working people and advocated the establishment of labor schools for them, etc. 12. Adam Smith The first person to directly discuss the productive and economic significance of education was Adam Smith, the outstanding representative of British classical economics and the founder of the theoretical system in the 17th century. For the first time, he regarded human experience, knowledge, and ability as important contents of national wealth and important factors in developing production. He believes that \”human talent is as important a means of production as any other type of capital.\” Its main ideas are reflected in The Wealth of Nations (1776). For Adam Smith, education and training made economic sense. He pointed out: \”To learn a talent, you need to be educated, go to school, and be an apprentice. It costs a lot. These talents are naturally part of the property for him personally, and they are also part of the property for the society to which he belongs. Workers Improving proficiency can be regarded as fixed capital in society along with machines and tools that facilitate labor and save labor. When learning, it will certainly cost a fee, but this fee can be repaid and profits can be earned.\” He also pointed out: “A profession that requires special skills and proficiency that takes a lot of effort and time to learn can beIt is said to be equivalent to a high-priced machine. People who have learned this profession must expect to receive back all their tuition fees and at least make ordinary profits in addition to ordinary labor wages when they engage in work. Moreover, considering that the length of human life is extremely uncertain, this must be done within an appropriate period of time, just as considering the relatively certain life of a machine, costs must be recovered and profits must be obtained within an appropriate period. The difference between the wages of skilled labor and the wages of ordinary labor is based on this principle. \”13. Pestalozzi Pestalozzi (1746-1827), the great Swiss democratic educator, said that labor is the center of people\’s lives, so productive labor should be the center of school education. He said that education comes from the working people. , therefore education should be closely linked to the requirements of the working people and comprehensively develop children’s working ability. His thoughts on “linking learning with manual labor, linking schools with workshops, so that they become one… …on the one hand, learning, and on the other hand, manual labor\” (\”Selected Works on Western Bourgeois Education\” p. 203). This idea of the connection and combination of education and productive labor, he is about cultivating educated workers through mass schools. Zhu\’s educational thoughts are the most outstanding manifestations of modern educational thoughts before the emergence of large-scale machine production (from the perspective of the country where he lived). His democratic educational thoughts have a very important impact on the development of modern education. 14. Zhu There is no doubt that Julian was the first person to discuss both the academic and practical aspects of comparative education in a fairly complete way. In addition, he also proposed an epistemology for comparative education that was undoubtedly independent of other disciplines. .Marco-Antoine Julien of Paris was born in Paris on March 10, 1775. He was given this name so as not to be confused with his father\’s name (Julian of Delon). Julian of Paris Always energetic, he has always had a great interest in politics and journalism, although he soon showed an obvious interest in educational issues as well. He was first and foremost an Enlightenment thinker, espousing typical rationalist ideals and leaning towards the popular national trends of the time. ism. However, this did not prevent him from insisting on examining culture and social systems from a broad cosmopolitan perspective; this perspective benefited greatly from his many travels in France and abroad. From 1808 onwards, he His main attention obviously turned to education. In this year, he published a book called \”Introduction to Physical Education, Moral Education and Intellectual Education\”; the text was too cumbersome and the content was too vague. Nonetheless, the book showed With his unusual characteristics, he boldly put forward many innovative suggestions. In 1810, he inspected Pestalozzi’s Ifon College and was deeply impressed by Pestalozzi and his original teaching methods. Two years later, He published a book called \”The Essence of Pestalozzi\’s Educational Method\”. Julian left his two 7-year-old sons at Ifton, which also shows that he admired the school very much. 15. Rousseau Rousseau (1712-1778 ), French Enlightenment thinker. His \”Emile\” was conceived 20 years ago and written 3 years ago in 1762A monumental work published in 2006. Rousseau pointed out the failure of old education in his book \”Emile\”, and at the same time, actively proposed a plan to build a new education system. \”Emile\” is divided into five volumes. Its main clue is to return to nature and develop nature. The style is a novel with narrative and discussion. The first four volumes point out the absurdity of men\’s education at that time and propose a naturalistic reform plan; the fifth volume puts forward the idea of reforming women\’s education. Rousseau believed that children should be educated in the nature of the countryside during their childhood. The only book they should read is \”Robinson Crusoe\” and the craft they should learn is carpentry; women\’s education should be based on the purpose of being a good wife and mother; In education, children should be treated as children, not as adults, children\’s nature should be respected, children should be inspired and induced, and children\’s mistakes should be educated using the natural consequences method. 16. Helvetius Helvetius (1715-1771) was a French philosopher. Born in Paris to a doctor\’s family, he was educated at a Jesuit college and became a tax collector in 1738. He saw social injustice, determined to benefit society, and began to explore issues such as politics, law, religion, morality, and education. In 1758, he published the book \”On Spirit\”, which opposed religion and the ruling system at that time, which caused great repercussions. The book was printed 50 times in a short period of time and translated into major European languages. Due to the opposition of the Pope and others, the book was burned in public even though it was deleted three times. His \”On the Intellectual Capacity and Education of Man\” was written in 1767 but was not published for fear of persecution. In 1773, a Russian published the book for him, but it was banned from being sold in Russia. Helvetius believed that people\’s innate wisdom is equal, that rationality and knowledge come from acquired education, that genius is a creation of education, and that everyone should have the right to receive secondary and higher education. Helvetius believes that education is omnipotent, and what kind of education a person receives will determine what kind of person he becomes. Helvetius opposed church intervention in education, advocated secularization of education, and used public education to cultivate patriots who could combine personal interests with public interests. Helvetia advocates attaching importance to scientific education and sports so that children can be healthy and strong and truly enjoy a happy life. 17. Herbart The German educator Herbart (1776-1841) is also a famous representative of modern educational thought. His contribution lies in clarifying the purpose of education from a bourgeois standpoint, researching and elaborating on the teaching process, its stages and certain laws, and elaborating on a series of issues such as the educational process and the management of children. Herbart was a champion of classical subjects and classical liberal arts schools. His educational thoughts are a summary of the educational experience from classical liberal arts middle schools to modern schools. He preferred classical liberal arts middle schools, but he also advocated running practical middle schools and mass national schools. He favored classical subjects, but also advocated the establishment of modern subjects, including humanities and natural subjects. Herbart is one of the famous educators who values the learning of systematic knowledge, the role of teachers, and the role of textbooks. He is a famous representative of the classical and traditional schools in modern educational thought. His educational thoughts had a very important influence on the development of modern education. 18. Owen, the great British utopian socialist Owen (1778-1856) was also an educational thinker and educational experimenter in modern education. Born in Wales into a family of craftsmen. He left home at the age of 9 to make a living on his own and became self-taught. In January 1800, he served as the manager of the New Lanark Cotton Mill in Scotland and implemented reform plans, such as improving workers\’ welfare, establishing a character formation college (new hall) for workers, that is, an educational institution ranging from infant school to adult part-time education, etc. . Its reform experiment was very successful for a time. In 1824, he went to the United States to try out a new communist village, the \”New Harmony\” Village, but it failed. In the era when he lived, Britain\’s modern industry had developed and social contradictions were also very acute. As an entrepreneur, he is also very sensitive to the role of modern production and modern science, as well as to the problems of modern society. Therefore, his educational thoughts have gone far beyond those of other utopian socialists and democratic educators that reflected modern production and education in the budding period of modern society. He not only saw the shortcomings of capitalism, but also saw the power of science and large-scale production. He saw that \”every increase in science or mechanical and chemical power will directly lead to an increase in wealth\” (\”Selected Works of Owen\”, Volume 1, p. 299), and felt that the \”growth of science has no end, and its ability to develop will also be \”It expands as it grows\” (ibid., vol. 2, p. 52). He also saw that \”the labor of some people is of much greater value than that of others, which is mainly caused by the education they receive.\” ” (ibid., Vol. 1, p. 181). Therefore, he believed that \”methods must be developed to enable the children of the poor to receive the most effective education.\” (ibid.) “Cultivate their moral, intellectual, physical, and behavioral qualities and educate them into all-round development people” (ibid., Volume 2, p. 13). It was based on the goal of transforming society and the above-mentioned understanding that he organized public, free and universal early childhood education and primary education, and offered a wider range of courses in primary schools than those in British primary schools at that time, such as native language, arithmetic, geography , history, nature, etc., and religious classes are cancelled. He attached great importance to labor education and combined education with productive labor. Children had to participate in some productive labor according to their age and physical strength. However, children under ten were prohibited from being employed, and the labor of children over ten was subject to strict time limits (Six hours). He also advocated that children learn some gardening, agriculture, crafts and production skills. Owen\’s educational thoughts had an important influence on Marx\’s educational thoughts and subsequent educational practices, especially those in socialist countries. 19. Froebel Froebel (1782-1852) was a German educator. His educational theory was mainly based on German classical philosophy and early evolutionary thought, and Pestalozzi’s educational ideas were the main source of educational thought. \”Human Education\” is his masterpiece on education, reflecting his basic views on philosophy and pedagogy. In \”The Education of Man\”, Froebel regards \”unity\” or the spirit of God as the essence and cause of all things, and the essence and task of education is to help people freely and consciously express his divine essence and understand nature. , the unity of humanity and God. He affirms humanityBeing inherently kind requires education that conforms to nature. He described human education from a dialectical perspective as a staged, continuous and development process from imperfection to perfection. Chapters 1 to 4 of \”Human Education\” describe the different characteristics of each stage of human development and the main tasks of education. Froebel emphasized family life, especially the role of mother in early education, valued the educational value of self-activities and games, and discussed the curriculum issues of school education, which was characterized by the inclusion of handicrafts and art classes in the school curriculum. In addition, the propositions reflected in Chapter 4, Section 4, \”Spatial Representation,\” laid the theoretical foundation for the later Gift Game. Due to the limitations of the idealistic worldview, Froebel\’s educational theory has a strong mystical color. At the same time, , limited by the level of scientific development at that time, he could not scientifically explain the characteristics of children\’s development. 20. Diesel Dowert (1790-1866), a German educator. \”German Teacher Training Guide\” is his educational masterpiece . The first general article is written by him; the second monograph is written by a co-author (teachers of secondary schools and normal schools), which is a paper on the nature of teaching methods in various subjects. Distohui opposed German education The narrow nationalistic tendencies and strong religious overtones in the purpose put forward the ideal of \”whole-person education\”. He regarded \”automaticity\” as the subjective basis of human development, and took the truth, goodness and beauty in society as education The objective basis is that the combination of the two can be regarded as cultivating the \”whole person\”. Distohui proposed the principle of natural adaptability and cultural adaptability of education, believing that education must conform to human nature and its development laws. His related thoughts It is in line with the trend of educational psychology since Pestalozzi, but his specific views on the characteristics of children\’s psychological development were limited by the level of psychological development at that time. As a supplement to the principle of natural adaptability, Distohui proposed the principle of cultural adaptability , which is the inheritance and development of Stallozzi\’s thoughts on developing and perfecting people. He believes that the development of human nature cannot be carried out in a vacuum, and education must adapt to the social and cultural conditions. But he has not yet realized The essential relationship between the two principles of culture and nature is the relationship between purpose and means, that is, it does not realize that adapting to nature is to better adapt to culture, but puts the principle of natural adaptability in a dominant position. Distohui discussed the form of teaching The relationship between purpose and substantive purpose. He believes that these two purposes are not mutually exclusive, but closely related. When teaching is organized correctly, both purposes can be achieved. But he pays more attention to the formal purpose of teaching. Pointing out that there are still relics of pure rote learning in schools, the idea of formal direction of teaching should not be abandoned in any case. Disdowei is known as \”the teacher of German teachers\” and \”Germany\’s Pestalozzi\” . The teaching method principles he proposed became the guiding principles for the study of teaching methods in various subjects in the German educational circles in the mid-19th century. He is considered to be the greatest teaching theory expert in the West after the deaths of Comenius and Pestalozzi. 21. Newman Newman ( 1801-1890) was a famous British theologian and educator in the 19th century. His \”The Ideal of the University\”The book is a classic in the history of world higher education. The book is a collection of lectures, the first nine of which focus on university teaching, and the last ten of which focus on university disciplines. Newman believes that teaching and scientific research in universities are in conflict with each other, and the function of universities is teaching. In universities, narrow professional training cannot be carried out. Free education should be implemented to cultivate students\’ morality and rationality. University teaching should provide knowledge of universality and completeness, of which theology is an integral component. Newman opposed the utilitarian view and believed that knowledge was an end in itself. Newman believes that an ideal student should take the initiative and actively learn and train his or her intelligence through learning knowledge. 22. Tolstoy Lev Tolstoy (1828-1910) This talented Russian writer, with the best wish to establish an educational institution that would allow students to be completely free and unfettered, in 1857, 1860 and 1861 He conducted research visits to European countries, especially France and Germany, trying to find experiences that might enlighten him. But nothing he saw in Europe satisfied him. He particularly despised Prussian education, which was considered a super model at the time. Even compulsory enrollment in primary schools is considered intolerable by him. The impressions he wrote became part of his \”Education Manuscripts\”, from which we can clearly see: on the one hand, he has absolutely strong nationalist sentiments; on the other hand, he has absolutely strong liberal tendencies. He believed that all foreign experiences had nothing in common with his educational ideas. Not only should Russia not imitate the West, but on the contrary must avoid their influence. This view does not mean that Tolstoy regarded European educational experience as worthless. The working people\’s schools in Marseille and the Froebelian \”kindergartens\” in Gotha and Weimar left a good impression on him. But this is no reason why Russia should follow suit. Tolstoy believed that Russia should create its own model. 23. Kaichensteiner Kaichensteiner (1854-1932) started from the interests of the German bourgeoisie in the era of imperialism and studied the education issues of the children of working people, that is, the so-called \”citizen education\” and \”labor schools\” question. His \”citizen education\” and \”labor school\” are both aimed at national schools and accomplish the same two tasks; namely, character training (instilling ideological education loyal to the bourgeoisie) and vocational training (training capable hands for occupations) education) in order to train students to become \”useful national citizens\” of Germany (Keichensteiner: \”Essentials of Work School\”, 1935, p. 13), that is, to train students to be able to both create profits for the bourgeoisie and A smart worker who doesn\’t disturb his master\’s peace. Kechensteiner\’s views that workers\’ children do not need more scientific knowledge and that they are inclined to manual labor are reactionary views of the bourgeoisie and should be criticized, but he systematically studied children\’s labor education and focused on cultivating children\’s labor Interests, cultivating their scientific thinking methods and cultivating their skilled skills, as well as the two-year continuing education in the evening class system that was later piloted, accumulated a lot of experience in cultivating skilled workers. Later, people regarded German vocational skills asTechnical education is regarded as one of the two pillars of Germany\’s industrial development, and it cannot be said that it has nothing to do with Keichensteiner\’s efforts. Keichensteiner\’s educational thoughts had an important influence on the subsequent development of vocational and technical education, and his useful experience is worthy of our study and reference. 24. Sadler Michael Sadler can and should generally be considered one of the educational travelers of the 19th century. Born in 1861, he lived most of his life in the 19th century, and his professional life also began in the 19th century. A few years before the start of the 20th century, he began to pay attention to foreign education. From 1894 to 1895 he was a member of the Bryce Secondary School Board. In 1895 he worked in the Bureau of Special Investigations and Reports of the Board of Education in London, a position which ultimately established his preference for the subject of comparative education. Finally, he became leader of Oxford University College for 11 years. Since he was appointed chairman of the Calcutta University Committee from 1919 to 1923, he had a better opportunity to restart his comparative work in education. During World War II (1943), he passed away with full honors. Sadler did not write a major theoretical work on the subject of comparative education. In general, he prefers to express his thoughts through reports and symposiums. Nonetheless, his greatest contribution was precisely his new insights into the theoretical and scientific characteristics of comparative education. In this sense, he is the pioneer of a new phase. Since then, people going abroad are no longer just looking for specific experiences that can be transferred abroad, but have more purposes: to study the underlying causes of these experiences. Researchers should focus on studying the causes of foreign experiences rather than the “results” of the experiences themselves. The real value of comparative research lies not in discovering mechanisms that can be copied from one country to another (although the usual possibility of such imitation should not be ignored), but in demonstrating the spiritual essence that makes a certain foreign system noble and great. What, in order to find some means later on to transplant this spirit in one\’s own soil, when it is deemed necessary to correct certain shortcomings in the life of the country. Although Sadler admired the German education system very much, he said that no country could hope to accurately transplant the essence of German education by imitating German organizations. The organizational structure of German education actually forms a whole; this is both its achievement and its danger. German education must be considered as a whole, otherwise it should not be imitated. From this, for the first time, Sadler put forward a belief in a conscious and systematic way, which is: studying a country\’s education cannot only involve its schools. Sadler also believes that \”school system\” and \”education system\” should not be confused because the two are not the same thing. The school system itself is not state education. On the contrary, a country can adopt other effective ways to train and educate its young generation without relying on any school system. 25. Lenin Lenin inherited and developed the scientific communist theory founded by Marx and Engels in his own time, and also inherited and developed their theory on comprehensive technical education. Lenin studied comprehensively under the guidance of the following thoughtsissues related to technical education. First, Lenin regarded comprehensive technical education as a condition for the all-round development of human beings and a condition for the realization of socialism and communism. He did not regard it as a specific technical issue. Therefore, it has been included in the party\’s program many times. For example, in the program of the Eighth Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1919, there are two paragraphs: \”Free and compulsory general education and comprehensive education for all boys and girls under the age of 17. Technical education (i.e., theoretical and practical understanding of all the main branches of production). … Extensive vocational education linked to general general technical knowledge for persons over 17 years of age.\” 26. Arnold Michael Sadler (1861 —1943) one of the most famous educational travelers in the 19th century. However, much of his work was done in the 20th century. He himself was far more than just an educational traveler. He was not limited to the collection of foreign educational experiences, but made a decisive contribution to the advancement of comparative education methodology. We also note that he, unlike many of his contemporaries, seriously wished to avoid subjectivism and national bias in his evaluations. He seriously drew attention to the fact that comparative research should not decide in advance what to prove, but should discover objectively existing things. The best comparisons, he tells us, \” consist not in trying to make them suit our inclinations or prejudices, but in simply and seriously making clear what we see.\” In addition, Arnold was one of the first to vaguely realize that the educational system and its effects are always affected by a series of factors. Among these factors, in addition to geographical type, economic and social environment, he also highlighted historical traditions and national characteristics. . Regarding educational policy, he was particularly concerned about establishing a Ministry of National Education on the Prussian model in his country, and firmly advocated the enactment of a law compulsory enrollment of students and ensured the implementation of this law. 27. Nicholas Hans Nicholas Hans is one of the comparative educationists who strives to find appropriate ways of \”explaining\” educational systems. He was born in Odessa (Russia) in 1888, but he mainly carried out his activities in England. He also made a decisive contribution to the systematization of our discipline. The bibliographic index lists a large number of works written by Hans, the first of which was published in 1929 under the title \”Principles of Educational Policy\”. This book was somewhat influenced by Hesson (more on that later), and the two later collaborated on another book. This 1929 work clearly shows the author\’s tendency to use comparison as the main method. In addition to a large number of works that still maintain their important value today (mainly see his works in 1930, 1931, 1951, and a large number of articles in the \”Education Yearbook\”), a book he published in 1949 is undoubtedly his most important work. His famous works make him a master of today\’s comparative education discipline. The title of this work itself is of great significance: \”Comparative Education: A Study of Factors and Traditions in Education\” (see the 1980 reprint in the index at the end of the book, which is also the version used below). In addition to writing numerous books, he also wroteAs a professor of comparative education at \”King\’s College\” in London, he carried out intensive teaching work in the 1930s. Let\’s take a look at the basic ideas reflected in this major work of his. After defining comparative education and revealing its purpose in the first chapter, Hans uses three parts to study three groups of factors that he believes restrict the education system, namely: natural factors, racial factors, language factors, geographical factors, economic factors; religious factors Among the traditional religions in Europe, Hans selected three sects: Catholicism, Anglicanism, and Puritanism; secular humanism, socialism, nationalism, and democracy. 28. Alain (1868-I951), formerly known as Emile Auguste Chatita, was a French philosopher and essayist. He studied at the Ecole Normale Supérieure in Paris and later served as a philosophy professor at the Lycée Henri IV in Paris. He has written many short papers and essays, the main ones include \”Alan\’s Quotations\”, \”Literary Theory Series\”, \”Political Theory Series\”, \”Education Talk\”, etc. Alan is an advocate of classical education. He strongly opposed the bourgeois modernist educators who were keen on children\’s development stages, interests, instincts, etc. He believed that children are future adults and that there should be a common curriculum for all children. Consider learning and playing games to be completely different. Learning is not entertainment, but hard work. The basic task of teachers is to hone students\’ will and overcome this difficulty. It is advocated that students should learn geometry and Latin, because many classical works can be understood from Latin. He believes that education, as a regulator of human emotions, is about cultivating \”trustworthy citizens\”; the ideal teacher is concerned with the completion of this ultimate goal, rather than simply imparting knowledge. Richard Wynn Livingstone is a famous British educator and classical scholar. He first studied at Winchester Public School, and after graduation, he entered New College, Oxford University, to study for honorary degrees in Latin verse and other subjects. He stayed in Oxford until 1924 and worked as a researcher, tutor and librarian at Corpus Christi College. During this period, he served on the Prime Minister\’s Classical Language Committee in 1920 and was editor of the Classical Language Review magazine. From 1924 to 1933, he served as Vice-Chancellor of Queen\’s University Belfast, which greatly promoted the development of the university and its financial support. He was knighted in 1931. From 1933 to his retirement, he served as Dean of Corpus Christi College in Oxford, founded summer schools for British colonial officials, expanded educational opportunities for adults, and played an important role in establishing a boarding college for women. From 1944 to 1947, he served as vice president of the university. During the last ten years of his academic life, he was engaged in writing and lecturing. He vigorously defended the value of liberal education, with special emphasis on the study of classical languages. He believes that Christianity and Greek spirit constitute the basis of a national culture, and the current crisis of capitalist society and culture is precisely because this basis has been weakened. Therefore, he believed that this process must be \”reversed\” and advocated the role of classical Chinese in shaping the national spirit. He advocated opening Greek and Latin in middle schools and restoring the status of classical Chinese in schools. His major educational works include: \”Greek Genius and What It Means to Us\” (1912), \”In Defense of Classical Language Education\”, \”The Future of Education\” (1941), \”The Portrait of Socrates\” (1938), \”Cambridge and Other Essays on Education\” (1959). 29. Montessori Maria Montessori (1870-1952), a famous Italian educator and the founder of the Montessori education method. Her pedagogy was based on a belief in the creative potential of the child, his motivation to learn, and his rights as an individual. In 1894, Montessori graduated from the Department of Medicine of the University of Rome and served as an assistant physician at the Psychiatric Clinic of the University of Rome. She became interested in the education of mentally retarded children. From 1899 to 1901, she served as director of the National School of Psychological Correction in Rome, where her methods proved very successful. From 1896 to 1899, she served as a professor of health at a women\’s college in Rome, taught education at the University of Rome from 1901 to 1904, and served as a professor of anthropology from 1905 to 1908. During this time she continued to study philosophy, psychology and education. In 1907, she founded a children\’s home in a ghetto in Rome, applying her methods to children of normal intelligence. Her success led to the opening of other Montessori schools. Over the next few years, she traveled throughout Europe, India, and the United States, lecturing, writing, and training teachers. In 1922, he served as a school inspector in the Italian government. In 1934, due to fascist rule, he left Italy, went to Spain and Sri Lanka, and finally settled in the Netherlands. Montessori believed that there were too many educators who interfered with children\’s free movement, everything was mandatory, and punishment became synonymous with education. She emphasized that educators must trust children\’s inner and potential power and provide children with an appropriate environment to allow children to move freely. She specially made many teaching aids, such as small furniture, glass, ceramics and other small objects, for children to practice sensory exercises. Her major educational books include: \”The Montessori Method\”. 30. Jean-Paul Sartre is also an existentialist in the category of phenomenology. His representative works of educational philosophy include \”Being and Nothingness\” and \”Existentialism is Humanism\”. He also proposed two core concepts, one is \”freedom\” and the other is \”choice\”. He believes that life is absurd and hopeless, and one should freely choose one\’s own essence based on the principle of \”existence precedes essence\”; individuals are destined to be free, and freedom means choice; individuals have the right to choose absolutely freely and can do whatever they want. It’s okay to be late, to miss class, to refuse to study or do homework; but freedom can be painful and burdensome. Because personal freedom is absolutely contradictory to the freedom of others, and others are hell; all human relationships are nothing more than sadism, masochism, and indifference to each other; as a teacher, he must be in a dominant position, and students must either resist or admit defeat. Schools Education can only be forced labor for students; the teacher does not use preaching, but uses his own actual actions to show the students that he is opposed to \”bad loyalty\”, that is, he is opposed to worshiping, imitating, submitting to, and being confused in a certain role. Such as being a \”good teacher\”, becoming a \”strong man\”, being an \”award winning\”Athletes\”, being \”campus queens\”, serving as \”advisers\”, etc. Only in this way can education be \”personalized\”. 31. Jaspers Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) German philosopher, the most important in Germany One of the existential philosophers. Born in Oldenburg, Germany. In 1900, he entered the University of Heidelberg to study law. The next year he transferred to Munich and continued to study law. He later transferred to Berlin, Göttingen and Heidelberg, where he studied medicine for six years. For a long time. After passing the state examination in 1908, he practiced medicine. In 1909, he was a research assistant at the Psychiatric Clinic of Heidelberg University. In 1913, he transferred to the Department of Philosophy at Heidelberg University. In 1921, he was appointed as a professor of philosophy. In 1919, he wrote \”The Psychology of World Views\”, trying to clarify philosophy and science relations, and is committed to the development of philosophy independent of science. He believes that the task of philosophy is to appeal to the freedom of individuals as the subject of thinking and existence, and to focus on the existence of the human being as the center of all reality. The ten years from 1920 to 1930 , further developed these ideas. In the early 1930s, philosophical works were published one after another. The three-volume \”Philosophy\” published in 1932 was the most systematic expression of existential philosophy in German. In 1933, Hitler came to power. Due to Jaspers His wife was Jewish. He was excluded from the high-level organization of the university, but was still allowed to teach and publish works. He published \”Reason and Existence\” (1935), \”On Nietzsche\” (1936), \”On Descartes\” \”Children\” and \”Existential Philosophy\” (1938), etc. Because he opposed the national socialist theory, he was deprived of the right to lecture, expelled from his professorship, and banned from publishing. In 1942, he moved to Switzerland. After World War II, faced with reconstruction The mission of the university and the moral and political rebirth of the German people. Jaspers published the book \”The Ideal of the University\” in 1946, calling for the complete denazification of university teaching staff. In 1948, he was appointed professor of the University of Basel in Switzerland. Professor of Philosophy. He was convinced that in view of modern technologies in the fields of communication and warfare, mankind must strive for world unity. He called this new development in his thought world philosophy, the main task of which was to create a mode of thinking that would help establish freedom world order, and his philosophy changed from existential philosophy to world philosophy. He published \”The Great Philosophers\” (1957), \”The Future of Humanity\” (1958) and \”The Future of Germany\” (1967). It was revised in 1967. He became a Swiss citizen. He died in 1969. He published more than 30 books during his lifetime, leaving behind 30,000 pages of manuscripts and a large number of important correspondence. 32. Einstein Einstein is recognized by the world as the greatest scientist of the 20th century. He was praised as \”one of the most creative and intelligent figures in human history\” by \”The Concise Encyclopedia Britannica\”. However, such a dazzling figure was often criticized as \”isolated and mentally retarded\” throughout his primary and secondary school years. ”, “Undisciplined and absent-minded. \”Fantasy\”. On the eve of graduating from middle school, the school even declared that he would \”achieve nothing\” in the future and ordered him to drop out of school. When he was 16 years old, he applied forAdmitted to college, although physics. His math scores were very good, but he failed in the subjects that required rote memorization, so he was named Luosunshan. After entering college in the second year, he was still unwilling to force himself to adapt to the passive, rigid, and purely step-by-step study life. He \”brushed out\” many courses without authorization, and only listened to certain courses with \”great interest\”. Some classes and self-study at home. In four years of college life, he was still not a \”good student\”: he was once called a \”lazy dog\” by a mathematics professor, was punished for an accident during an experiment, and was once considered by a physics professor to be unsuitable for physics and should change his career. When he graduated from college, several of his classmates and friends stayed at the school as teaching assistants. However, he suffered the fate of being \”unemployed upon graduation\” because he was not appreciated by the professors. These personal experiences gave Einstein a poor overall impression of education. Because of this, after becoming famous, Einstein formed a unique educational perspective through his own experience and long-term observation. \”Knowledge is dead; schools must serve living people.\” This is Einstein\’s basic view on school education. He opposed treating schools merely as tools for imparting knowledge, and even more opposed to treating students \”as dead tools.\” He believes: \”The purpose of school should always be that young people leave school as a harmonious person, not as an expert.\” And the so-called \”harmonious person\”, according to his thinking, is that he is full of personality. People who are also beneficial to society. Einstein\’s above-mentioned basic educational ideas are completely consistent with our idea of quality education that respects students\’ subjectivity and promotes their healthy growth. 33. Silke Franz Silke is a prestigious university professor who served as the leader of the magazine \”Culture and Education\” for a long time. In 1962, he published a book called \”Comparative Education: History\” , Theory and Practice\”. In this work, he systematically collected and improved educational ideas since 1920, and developed many articles in educational magazines to spread these ideas. This work had a strong influence not only on comparative educationists in Europe but also in the United States, especially on Beredi, who adopted valuable perspectives on Hilke\’s methodology. Silk proposed that there are four steps or stages in comparative research, which he called: \”description\”, \”explanation\”, \”juxtaposition\” and \”comparison\”. The first stage is called \”phenomenal investigation\”, which can also be called the necessary \”comparative prelude\”, which is basically equivalent to what Schneider calls the \”foreign pedagogy\” research stage; according to Silke\’s point of view (1967, Pages 164-174), there is no need to insist that \”foreign pedagogy\” and \”comparative science of education\” are essentially different like Schneider, but should directly admit that this is a preliminary or preliminary stage, which can be achieved through direct understanding or the help of various documents information to complete. The second stage, the “interpretation” stage, refers to the stage of “an in-depth analysis of the decisive factors of educational phenomena” (p. 170), which requires clarifying the complexity and ambiguous characteristics of these phenomena from the beginning. In the \”interpretation\” stage, a variety of (historical, cultural, ideological, technical(political, social, etc.) factors; therefore, he requires researchers to receive training in multidisciplinary methods. Regarding the third stage, the \”parallel\” stage, Silk began to trace the origin of this term and found that it was Pedro Roseyo who first suggested its use. Silk says that this term is very useful and has the same meaning in French, English and German; in short, juxtaposition is \”arrangement of educational phenomena one after another\”, or the combination of two or more research objects obtained from two countries. Data are compared. Silk believes that determining the standard of comparison is the most important thing at this time. The final stage, the \”comparison\” stage in the proper sense, is the stage at which the research process is completed. 34. Ingalls Ingalls’ understanding of modern people: 1. Modern man is ready and willing to accept new life experiences, new ideas and new ways of behavior that he has never experienced before; 2. Be prepared to accept social reforms and changes; 3. Broad ideas, open mind, respect and be willing to consider different opinions and views from all aspects; 4. Pay attention to the present and the future, be punctual and cherish time; 5. Have a strong sense of personal efficacy, be confident in the abilities of people and society, and be efficient in doing things; 6. Plan; 7. Knowledge; 8. Dependability and trust; 9. Pay attention to professional skills and have the psychological basis to be willing to receive different remuneration according to the level of skills; 10. Be willing to allow himself and his descendants to choose to leave a profession revered by tradition. Dare to challenge the content of education and traditional wisdom; 11. Mutual understanding, respect and self-esteem; 12. Understand production and processes; 13. Be optimistic about yourself, social life and the future; 14. The concept of equality and awareness of law-abiding. 35. Russell Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), a famous British philosopher, mathematician, and logician. In 1880, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge University, and received a first-class honors degree in mathematics in 1893. He then switched to philosophy and received a first-class honors degree in moral philosophy in 1894. After graduation, he traveled to Germany to study economics and was influenced by Marxism. After returning to China, he worked as a lecturer at the School of Political Science and Economics, University of London. In 1903, he published the book \”Principles of Mathematics\” and won the position of researcher at Trinity College with his paper \”Fundamentals of Geometry\”. In 19O8 he was elected as a member of the Royal Society. Published \”Philosophical Essays\” in 1910. Published \”Problems of Philosophy\” in 1917. He joined the Labor Party in 1914. During World War I, he was fined, dismissed and imprisoned for participating in pacifist activities. While in prison, he wrote \”Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy\” (1919). In 1920, he visited China and the Soviet Union and wrote the book \”The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism\”. In his later years, he opposed the imperialist war of aggression and participated in convening the International War Crimes Tribunal. In the last three years of his life, he published one of the best works of his life, \”Autobiography\”. In 1927, Russell and his wife Blake founded a private school, the former Hill School, near Petersfield, England, to experiment with his educational theory. It was one of the progressive schools in Britain at that time. After divorcing in 1935, Braque stayed on his own until 1939. He has always advocated \”free education\” and \”love\”\”Education\”. It believes that the basic purpose of education is the development of character, and \”vitality, courage, sensitivity and wisdom\” are the basis for the formation of \”ideal character\”; and is convinced that through the \”appropriate treatment of children\’s physical, emotional and intellectual \” can enable these qualities to be universally cultivated. 36. Heidegger (Manin Heidegger) is an existentialist in the category of phenomenology. His representative works of educational philosophy include \”Being and Time\” and \”Introduction to Metaphysics\”. He proposed two The core concepts are, first, \”worry\” and second, \”reality\”. He believes that people are thrown into a world of \”nihility\”, faced with fear, worry, despair, isolated and helpless, and full of \”worries\” about what kind of person they will become. Either you avoid worries and live your life like everyone else, living a standardized, impersonal, and not \”real\” life; or you accept the reminders of worries, see people as completely free, face your worries, and start living a \”real\” life. , do not follow the rules, choose your own goals and self-standards, and pursue self-realization; in order to discover yourself and achieve reality, you must have courage, do not be afraid, do not obey, and abandon the social culture in which you live; do not succumb to the real world, but use it The world provides things to realize the best self. The personalization of school education is based on this. 37. Freire Freire’s ideological system has a very significant feature: his educational thoughts are clear-cut, sharp in wording, and Uncompromisingly critical and fighting spirit; but the ideological basis of his educational theory is surprisingly complex, incorporating almost all kinds of philosophy, sociology, and even linguistics and religious thoughts. Freire\’s early thoughts were eclectic. , he uses a critical cultural anthropology perspective and uses abstract \”democracy\” to summarize the historical process. In his adult education practice, he absorbs and draws on Dewey\’s problem education thought, Chomsky, and Saussure\’s Linguistic theory, the teaching theory of French educator Frenet. At the same time, the thoughts of classical philosophers such as Plato, Kant, and Hegel, Rousseau\’s naturalistic philosophy and educational thoughts, Husserl\’s phenomenology, and Sartre\’s existence ism had a great influence on Freire. 38. Conant Conant, in order to promote the reform of basic education in the United States and its scientific and technological orientation, published \”American Middle School Today\” (1959), \”Junior High School Education\” (1960), \”Slums and Suburbs: A Review of Metropolitan Schools\” (1961), \”Normal Education in the United States\” (1963), \”Comprehensive Middle School\” (1967) and other works. Their basic proposition is that all students must take \”common core courses\”, Including mathematics, natural sciences, English, social studies, and American history; with special emphasis on the significance of the \”New Three Arts\” born from the impact of the Soviet satellite, that is, placing the three subjects of mathematics, science, and foreign languages in a prominent position in order to cultivate a large number of scientists and Engineers, providing scientific and technological talents for the U.S. economy and national defense; for this reason, it also emphasizes \”genius education\”, requiring gifted students to spend three years in middle school in three years of science, four years of mathematics,Four years of foreign language, plus four years of English and three years of social studies courses. 39. Maritanjak Maritan (1882-1973), Roman Catholic philosopher, main representative of neo-Thomism. Revered for his interpretation of the thought of Thomas Aquinas and his own Thomistic philosophy. Originally a Protestant, he converted to Catholicism in 1911. He first studied biology at the University of Heidelberg, then went to the University of Paris to study Thomasism from 1916 to 1908. He began to teach at the Catholic College in 1913, and was a professor of modern philosophy from 1914 to 1919. After 1932, he lectured at the Medieval Institute in Toronto every year, and served as a visiting professor at Princeton University (1941-1942) and Columbia University (1941-1944). From 1945 to 1948, he served as French Ambassador to the Vatican. From 1948 to 1960, he returned to Princeton as a professor of philosophy. Maritain believed that \”the chaos of modern (bourgeois) life is caused by people\’s ignorance of the soul, morality and religion\” and advocated \”moral re-education\” and \”restoration of religious beliefs\”; he demanded the inheritance of medieval The educational tradition regards religious education as the core of education. heart and highest goal to cultivate young people\’s pious faith in Christianity. He believes that progressivist education leaves students with little \”challenge\” and \”training\” and believes that \”real education\” starts from \”understanding\” and \”intuition\” based on unproven principles. The purpose of education by British educator Whitehead PDF 40. Holmes Brian Holmes of Britain discussed problem research in his works such as \”Educational Problems: A Comparative Method\” and \”Comparative Education: Reflections on Methods\” Law. He believes that comparative education research must follow the following four steps and methods. (1) Select and analyze problems. The main purpose is to select and analyze the major issues of current concern to various countries. These questions fall into two broad categories. One category is issues within education, such as comparisons of curriculum systems in various countries, and the other category is issues related to education and other areas of society, such as comparative studies on education investment issues in several countries. (2) Seek solutions (policies). The task of comparative education research is not to seek a universal strategy that can be adapted to any country, any region, or any era, but to analyze and explain which policies and methods are more suitable for which regions and environments, or to propose more suitable strategies for a certain country. A realistic and effective approach. (3) Verify relevant factors. Verification is a job that requires insight, critical analysis, and rigorous narrative. Verification should pay attention to three aspects: detailed description and analysis of the education system and its related political, economic, cultural and social backgrounds; screening out the decisive factors closely related to specific issues; and seriously evaluating these decisive factors. In order to better collect data and verify problems, Holmes designed a \”rational framework\” based on K.R. Popper\’s critical dualism and his own opinions. This framework includes four models. ①Normative model: including the study of ideological aspects such as beliefs, religion, philosophy, political concepts, and moral values that influence education in various countries.material. ② Institutional model: including the education system of the country under study, the model of the internal organizational structure of the education field, the institutional structure of government organizations, political parties, economics, and legal organizations that restrict the structure of the education system, as well as various powerful groups that influence national and local policies. organizational structure. ③Natural model: includes data on geography, geology, climate, environment, population, etc. ④ Mental state model: including information on traditional concepts, national consciousness and characteristics. (4) Forecast. On the basis of comprehensive analysis of education problems in various countries, we propose the best solution for a country or a region to solve a certain education problem, and make some practical predictions. 41. Neil Alexander Sutherland Neil (1883-1973) was a famous British educator and child psychologist. Born in Forfar, Scotland, he holds an MA in English Language and Literature from the University of Edinburgh. After graduating from university, he first taught in Scottish public schools for 12 years, and then taught at King Alfred\’s School in London for two years. In 1921, he cooperated with friends to establish an international school in Hellerau, Dresden, Germany. Moved to Sontaberg, Austria in 1923. He returned to England in 1924 and continued to run a school on a hill in Lemridis, called Summerhill School. Moved to Reston, Suffolk County in 1927. This is a small experimental school with students from the United Kingdom, Scandinavia, South Africa, the United States and Canada. The students are generally between the ages of 5 and 16, with about 25 boys and one girl. In 1968, there were 44 American students. Neil believes that modern education has everything wrong. He calls Summerhill School a casual school. The school of the heart believes that children are born wise and realistic. \”Freedom\” was his watchword. In his school, children can engage in activities that interest them and manage themselves. He believed that schools should be made to fit the children, rather than the children being made to fit the schools. Schools should abandon any discipline and moral training. Attendance is voluntary and children may or may not attend. It is actually a child-centered school. 42. Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Swiss psychologist, founder of genetic epistemology. After receiving his doctorate in 1918, Piaget became the director of the laboratory of the Rousseau Institute of the University of Geneva in 1921 and a professor at the University of Geneva in 1924. He was successively elected as president of the Swiss Psychological Society and the French-speaking Federation of Psychological Sciences. In 1954, he served as president of the 14th International Federation of Psychological Sciences. In addition, Piaget also served as the Director of the International Bureau of Education and the Director-General of UNESCO under the leadership of UNESCO for a long time. Piaget was also an honorary doctor or honorary professor from famous universities in many countries. In order to devote himself to the study of genetic epistemology, Piaget founded the \”International Center for Genetic Epistemology\” in Geneva in 1955 and served as its director, bringing together famous philosophers, psychologists, educators, logicians, mathematicians, and linguists from all over the world. and cybernetics scholars study genetic epistemology, and conduct multidisciplinary in-depth studies on the process and development of children\’s various concepts and knowledge formation.into research. Piaget divided the development of children\’s thinking into four major age stages. These four stages are: 1. The sensorimotor stage (from birth to about two years old). This stage is the budding period of thinking and the basis for future development. Piaget believed that this stage of psychological development determines the entire process of future psychological evolution. 2. Pre-operational stage (from about two years old to about six or seven years old). This stage is also called the prelogical stage, when children begin to use symbols as a medium to describe the external world, which is manifested in children\’s delayed imitation, imagination or play. 3. Specific operational stage (from about six or seven years old to about eleven or twelve years old). At this stage, children already have a general logical structure. 4. Formal operation stage (from about eleven or twelve years old to about fourteen or fifteen years old). At this time, children\’s wisdom development tends to mature, their thinking ability has gone beyond the specific content of things or perceived things, and their thinking has greater flexibility. Piaget studied the cognitive development of children\’s language and thinking in his early days and started from there. Finally, he founded the generative epistemology and left many valuable documents to future generations. Because of his profound knowledge and outstanding contributions, he received the American Psychological Association\’s Outstanding Contribution to Psychology Award in 1968, and in 1977 he received the Association\’s Thorndike Award in recognition of his contribution to educational psychology. In 1972, he received the \”Erasmus\” scholarship in the Netherlands, which has an honorary status equivalent to the Nobel Prize. 43. Chomsky held a famous debate in Royanmont, near Paris, France in October 1975. The protagonists of the debate are the famous Piaget and Chomsky. The theme of the debate is to explore children\’s development issues from the perspective of human language mechanism and language acquisition. Chomsky holds a weaker innateist position. He believes that children have a set of innate \”language acquisition devices\”. Through this innate language acquisition device, children process the language materials they are initially exposed to and generate a set of syntax, semantics and phonetics that can create new sentences. Rules come. Chomsky believes that the \”language acquisition device\” is actually an innate language organ. This \”psychological organ\” has a development process like other organs of the human body. Why do children generally only master the complex human language system when they are 5 years old? This is because human language organs are constantly developing. In addition, children\’s language development generally goes through development stages such as babbling, one-word sentences, and two-word sentences. This also shows that children\’s language development follows a natural process model. Many studies also indicate that the ability to acquire native language fluency declines after adolescence. All these show that human language function is completed at the age of 5 and is in a stable state by adolescence and no longer develops. This is determined by biological and genetic reasons. Some studies on patients with brain language impairment and families with language defects also support Chomsky’s innate hypothesis. How do we view the role of the environment in cognitive development and language acquisition? Chomsky, like other weak innate theories, acknowledges the role of environment and experience in cognitive development, including language acquisition, but believes that environment and experience are only like \”triggers\”\”In that way, the fundamental cause of development is the activity and maturity of the innate cognitive structure. In other words, the development of cognitive and language abilities must seek answers from the innate inner structure, and the environment only plays a supporting role. . It can be seen that Chomsky believes that the key factor in children\’s development is biological factors, that is, the \”natural\” side of \”nature dictates\”. 44. Krupskaya Krupskaya believes that ordinary Education should include comprehensive technical education, which is part of general education. Vocational education to cultivate specialized talents in various industries must be carried out on the basis of general education and comprehensive technical education. Krupskaya believes that comprehensive technical education It plays a huge role in changing workers from unskilled laborers who do not master modern technology to more skilled laborers who master modern technology and bridging the gap between skilled and unskilled labor. Krupskaya\’s above The opinions have important reference value for the current structural reform of middle schools in our country and how to deal with the interrelationship between general education, vocational and technical education and comprehensive technical education. For example, our country\’s single general high school structure should be reduced, and various secondary vocational and technical schools should have development, but ordinary high schools should not be overly reduced, for example, the proportion should still be maintained at about two-thirds. General high schools should strengthen comprehensive technical education and labor education, and can set up elective courses for vocational education, various secondary vocational and technical Schools should not only carry out professional education, but professional education should be carried out on the basis of extensive general education and comprehensive technical education. Because only in this way can we adapt to the requirements of rapidly developing production and technological progress. Krupskaya said in Objective On the basis of a thorough analysis of the current situation of production and technology, he revealed the essence of comprehensive technical education, stipulated its content, approaches and methods, thereby developing and concretely developing the Marxist theory of comprehensive technical education. 45. Kandel followed the American comparative educator The analysis by An-dreas M. Kazamias and Byron G. Massialas in \”Tradition and Change in Education\” is guided by the following three main purposes. First, \”report-description\” \”Purpose. He provides readers with \”information\” about the education systems of various countries, and classifies the facts according to issues, such as education systems, education administration, primary and secondary education, primary and secondary teacher training, etc. He believes that factual reporting is a comparative A necessary step in the research process. Second, the purpose of \”history-function\”. According to Kandel, comparative education should not only describe facts, but also illustrate characteristics. He pointed out that education should not be treated as an isolated undertaking. , but should be studied in conjunction with the national background and the social, economic, political and cultural background. Third, the purpose of \”reference-improvement\”. Kandel hopes that students who study comparative education can learn from foreign and domestic education systems by inspecting them. The ultimate purpose of developing a more desirable philosophical attitude is to improve the country\’s education system and cultivate loyalty to the \”democratic\” system. Kandel\’s views, especially the historical method of describing historical facts and analyzing the social and historical background , at this stageIn comparative education research, it occupies a dominant position. 46. Bruner Bruner is the founder of structuralist curriculum theory. His representative works include \”Educational Process\” (1959), \”Teaching Theory\” (1966), \”Educational Process Revisited\” (1971), etc. Its basic idea is: emphasizing that under the conditions of scientific and technological revolution and the proliferation of knowledge, curriculum reform must be carried out according to the principles of structuralism, so that students can master the basic structure of scientific knowledge, that is, basic principles or basic conceptual systems; it emphasizes that the more basic the concepts obtained, the more basic the concepts. The wider the application to new problems; asserting that under the premise of structuralist curriculum, any subject can be effectively taught to any child at any stage of development; emphasizing not only teaching students with good grades, but also helping every student To achieve intellectual development, it is necessary to abandon the traditional reproduction method and replace it with a discovery method that is conducive to the development of intelligence. 47. Kohlberg After Kohlberg criticized the two errors of the romantic moral education philosophy represented by Rousseau and the cultural transmission theory of moral education philosophy represented by Locke, namely the error of value relativity and the fallacy of naturalism, Based on several assumptions of its metaethics and normative ethics, its philosophy of moral development is constructed. Starting from its philosophy of moral development, especially the assumptions of metaethics, and with its profound rational thinking and rich empirical research, it established its theoretical system of moral development psychology and contributed to the improvement of modern moral cognitive development theory. made important contributions. As \”the most famous figure in the modern moral education revival movement\”, he has had a profound impact on school moral education in the United States and even the world. Based on his psychological research on the development of moral cognition, Kohlberg proposed a moral discussion strategy and a just group strategy based on certain educational theories and practices. First of all, Kohlberg\’s moral discussion strategy absorbed Socrates\’ The \”Midwife Technique\” aims to use moral dilemma stories and Xi Mingna-style moral talks to arouse students\’ moral cognitive conflicts and trigger students\’ moral thinking. He emphasized that to promote the development of children\’s moral judgment, direct preaching and indoctrination methods cannot be used, and only methods that cause moral conflicts and imbalances can be used. Secondly, Kohlberg’s just group strategy transforms and absorbs the moral education thoughts of Plato, Dewey and Durkheim. It comes from educational practice and experiment, and is constantly tested and developed in practice and experiment. It is intended to teach teachers through Through the democratic participation of students and a fair collective atmosphere, we provide students with opportunities to assume various roles and strive to create conditions to realize students\’ moral responsibilities. Kohlberg\’s adoption of the just group strategy shows that he has recognized the shortcomings of moral cognitive development and began to position the purpose of moral development to achieve moral behavior. This transformation from a purely cognitive orientation of moral development to a knowledge-doing orientation of moral development, even if it is not complete, and even if it still cannot satisfactorily solve the problem of the unity of knowledge and action, it is still a pragmatic spirit. 48. Gardner’s traditional IQ theory and Piaget’s cognitive development theory both believe that intelligence is based on language ability and mathematical-logical ability, and is based on overall thinking.The ability to exist in a coherent way. The \”Multiple Intelligences Theory\” proposed by Harvard professor and developmental psychologist Howard Gadner has attracted widespread attention around the world and has become an important guiding ideology for educational reforms in many Western countries since the 1990s. Under the new situation of deepening educational reform and comprehensively promoting quality education, studying the theory of multiple intelligences has important practical significance for my country\’s educational reform. Gardner believes that, on the one hand, intelligence is related to people\’s value standards in a certain social and cultural environment, which makes people in different social and cultural environments have different understandings of intelligence and have different requirements for the expression of intelligence. On the other hand, intelligence is not only the ability to solve practical problems, but also the ability to produce and create products that society needs. He proposed a new theory about intelligence, its nature and structure – the theory of multiple intelligences. There are seven relatively independent intelligences in Gardner\’s multiple intelligence framework: 1. Verbal-linguistic intelligence refers to the ability to listen, speak, read, and write, which is reflected in the individual\’s ability to use language smoothly and efficiently to describe events, express thoughts, and Ability to communicate with people. This kind of intelligence is particularly prominent in reporters, editors, writers, speakers, and political leaders. 2. Musical-rhythmic intelligence refers to the ability to feel, identify, remember, change and express music, which is reflected in an individual\’s sensitivity to music including rhythm, tone, timbre and melody, and the ability to express music through composing, playing and singing. This kind of intelligence is particularly prominent in composers, conductors, singers, performers, instrument makers and instrument tuners. 3. Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the ability of operations and reasoning, which is manifested by sensitivity to various relationships between things such as analogy, comparison, cause and effect, logic, and the ability to think through mathematical operations and logical reasoning. This kind of intelligence is more prominent in detectives, lawyers, engineers, scientists and mathematicians. 4． Visual-spatial intelligence refers to the ability to feel, identify, remember, and change the spatial relationships of objects to express thoughts and emotions. It is manifested as sensitivity to lines, shapes, structures, colors, and spatial relationships, and the ability to transform them through plane graphics and three-dimensional shapes. Demonstrated ability. This kind of intelligence is particularly prominent in painters, sculptors, architects, navigators, naturalists and military strategists. 5. Physical-kinesthetic intelligence refers to the ability to use the limbs and trunk, which is reflected in the ability to better control one\’s body, make appropriate physical responses to events, and be good at using body language to express one\’s thoughts and emotions. This kind of intelligence is particularly prominent in athletes, dancers, surgeons, race car drivers and inventors. 6. Self-knowledge-introspection intelligence refers to the ability to understand, penetrate and reflect on oneself, which is manifested in the ability to correctly realize and evaluate one\’s own emotions, motivations, desires, personality, and will, and to form self-esteem, self-esteem, and self-esteem based on correct self-awareness and self-evaluation The ability to self-discipline and self-control. This intelligence is found in philosophers, novelists, lawyers,Shi and others have outstanding performances. 7. Communicative-Communicative intelligence refers to the ability to get along and communicate with others, which is manifested in the ability to detect and experience other people\’s emotions, emotions and intentions and make appropriate responses accordingly. This kind of intelligence is more prominent in teachers, lawyers, salesmen, public relations personnel, talk show hosts, managers and politicians.
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